Saturday, August 28, 2010
Thursday, August 19, 2010
economy
"Economy"
Subsistence and Commercial Activities:
The main occupation of Gurungs is subsistence agriculture. Millet, wheat, barley, maize, potatoes, soybeans, and rice are grown. Some households also maintain vegetable gardens. Goats, chickens, water buffalo, and oxen are kept within the villages. Sheep and water buffalo are still grazed on high-altitude pastures, but deforestation has caused a reduction of fodder and thus in the last fifty years pastoralism has become a less significant economic activity. The rugged terrain on which Gurungs farm does not allow much agricultural surplus. The most important source of cash income for Gurungs is service in the Gurkha regiments of the British and Indian armies.
Industrial Arts:
Weaving is a common activity during the slack agricultural season. Women weave carrying cloths and woolen blankets, and men weave carrying baskets, winnowing baskets, and storage baskets.
Trade:
Beginning in the late nineteenth century, GurungsGurungs engage in trade with India and others are prominent in contracting and transportation businesses around Pokhara.
Division of Labor:
There is little formal division of labor among Gurungs. Men may not weave cloth and women may not weave bamboo or plow. Women generally look after the house, cook, and care for the physical needs of children. Men and women engage in most agricultural activities, as well as chopping wood for fuel and gathering fodder for livestock. Livestock in high-altitude pastures is most often tended by men. Metalwork, tailoring, and carpentry are performed by non-Gurung service castes who live in hamlets attached to Gurung villages.
Land Tenure:
While forest and grazing land are communally owned, agricultural land is held privately. Rights to land are equally distributed among sons.
The main occupation of Gurungs is subsistence agriculture. Millet, wheat, barley, maize, potatoes, soybeans, and rice are grown. Some households also maintain vegetable gardens. Goats, chickens, water buffalo, and oxen are kept within the villages. Sheep and water buffalo are still grazed on high-altitude pastures, but deforestation has caused a reduction of fodder and thus in the last fifty years pastoralism has become a less significant economic activity. The rugged terrain on which Gurungs farm does not allow much agricultural surplus. The most important source of cash income for Gurungs is service in the Gurkha regiments of the British and Indian armies.
Industrial Arts:
Weaving is a common activity during the slack agricultural season. Women weave carrying cloths and woolen blankets, and men weave carrying baskets, winnowing baskets, and storage baskets.
Trade:
Beginning in the late nineteenth century, GurungsGurungs engage in trade with India and others are prominent in contracting and transportation businesses around Pokhara.
Division of Labor:
There is little formal division of labor among Gurungs. Men may not weave cloth and women may not weave bamboo or plow. Women generally look after the house, cook, and care for the physical needs of children. Men and women engage in most agricultural activities, as well as chopping wood for fuel and gathering fodder for livestock. Livestock in high-altitude pastures is most often tended by men. Metalwork, tailoring, and carpentry are performed by non-Gurung service castes who live in hamlets attached to Gurung villages.
Land Tenure:
While forest and grazing land are communally owned, agricultural land is held privately. Rights to land are equally distributed among sons.
Expressive culture
"Expressive culture"
Religious Practitioners:
Practitioners of the pre-Buddhist Gurung religion, called panju and klihbri, are active in the performance of exorcisms and mortuary rites. Buddhist lamas are also important in funerary rituals, as well as performing purification rites for infants and some seasonal agricultural rituals. Wealthier Gurungs occasionally call lamas in to perform house-blessing ceremonies. Brahman priests are summoned to cast horoscopes and perform divinations at times of misfortune. Dammis from the local service castes are believed to be particularly potent exorcists and are often called in cases of illness.
Arts:
Gurungs make nothing that they would identify as art. The goods that they produce, such as baskets and blankets, are useful and tend to be of a conventional plain design. The artistry of Gurungs is expressed in their folk music and dance and especially in the evanescent form of song exchanges between young men and women.
Medicine:
Gurungs often employ exorcists as well as scientific drugs when suffering from an illness. Scientific medicine is highly valued, but it is costly and is not easily available in rural areas. Herbs and plants are also used in treating illness and injury.
Death and Afterlife:
Death is of central symbolic importance for Gurungs. The funerary ritual ( pae ) is the main ceremonial occasion in Gurung society, involving two nights and three days of ritual activity. It is attended by kin, villagers, and a large number of people who come for the conviviality and spectacle. Buddhist lamas and the panju and klihbri priests of the pre-Buddhist religion may officiate at the pae. Death is believed to involve the dissolution of elements that make up the body, so that the earth element returns to earth, air to air, fire to fire, and water to water. This process leaves the plah or souls (nine for men and seven for women), which must be sent through the performance of the pae to the Land of the Ancestors. There life continues much as it does in the present world, and from there the spirit can take other rebirths.
Religious Practitioners:
Practitioners of the pre-Buddhist Gurung religion, called panju and klihbri, are active in the performance of exorcisms and mortuary rites. Buddhist lamas are also important in funerary rituals, as well as performing purification rites for infants and some seasonal agricultural rituals. Wealthier Gurungs occasionally call lamas in to perform house-blessing ceremonies. Brahman priests are summoned to cast horoscopes and perform divinations at times of misfortune. Dammis from the local service castes are believed to be particularly potent exorcists and are often called in cases of illness.
Arts:
Gurungs make nothing that they would identify as art. The goods that they produce, such as baskets and blankets, are useful and tend to be of a conventional plain design. The artistry of Gurungs is expressed in their folk music and dance and especially in the evanescent form of song exchanges between young men and women.
Medicine:
Gurungs often employ exorcists as well as scientific drugs when suffering from an illness. Scientific medicine is highly valued, but it is costly and is not easily available in rural areas. Herbs and plants are also used in treating illness and injury.
Death and Afterlife:
Death is of central symbolic importance for Gurungs. The funerary ritual ( pae ) is the main ceremonial occasion in Gurung society, involving two nights and three days of ritual activity. It is attended by kin, villagers, and a large number of people who come for the conviviality and spectacle. Buddhist lamas and the panju and klihbri priests of the pre-Buddhist religion may officiate at the pae. Death is believed to involve the dissolution of elements that make up the body, so that the earth element returns to earth, air to air, fire to fire, and water to water. This process leaves the plah or souls (nine for men and seven for women), which must be sent through the performance of the pae to the Land of the Ancestors. There life continues much as it does in the present world, and from there the spirit can take other rebirths.
Sociopolitical organization
"Sociopolitical organization"
Political Organization:
Until 1962 the Gurung villages were governed by hereditary clan leaders and village headmen. In 1962 the national government instituted an electoral system whereby villages are grouped together in units of five, called panchayats, and divided into neighborhoods or wards from which local councillors are elected. The electorate also chooses a pradhan panche and uper pradhan (like a mayor and vice mayor, respectively) to lead the panchayat.
Social Control:
Gossip and fear of witch attack are common means of social control. The local council is able to levy fines against panchayat residents, and for serious crimes government police may be called in.
Conflict:
Disputes are often resolved by elders trusted by the parties involved. If this does not provide a solution then they may be brought before the village council or, as a last resort, to the district court.
Political Organization:
Until 1962 the Gurung villages were governed by hereditary clan leaders and village headmen. In 1962 the national government instituted an electoral system whereby villages are grouped together in units of five, called panchayats, and divided into neighborhoods or wards from which local councillors are elected. The electorate also chooses a pradhan panche and uper pradhan (like a mayor and vice mayor, respectively) to lead the panchayat.
Social Control:
Gossip and fear of witch attack are common means of social control. The local council is able to levy fines against panchayat residents, and for serious crimes government police may be called in.
Conflict:
Disputes are often resolved by elders trusted by the parties involved. If this does not provide a solution then they may be brought before the village council or, as a last resort, to the district court.
marriage and family
" Marriage and family"
Domestic Unit:Among Gurungs, the domestic unit changes over time. A household will begin as a nuclear family, and, as sons reach adulthood and marry, their brides come into the parental home and remain there while their first one or two children are small. The domestic unit is then an extended family for a period of five to ten years. As the son's children grow, he will build a separate residence, usually next to that of his parents.
Inheritance: Resources are distributed equally among sons in Gurung society. If there is no son, a daughter can inherit, and the son-in-law will come to reside in the household of his parents-in-law. The patrimony may be divided prior to the death of the father. In that case, the father can reserve a small portion. Although it runs contrary to Gurung custom, Nepalese law specifies that unmarried adult daughters should inherit a share of family property.
Socialization: Children are taught to be obedient and respectful of elders. They learn by imitation and the active encouragement of the older children, who often care for smaller ones. Corporal punishment is occasionally used, and unruly children may be isolated briefly. More often children are coaxed toward good behavior and instructed through stories about possible social and supernatural consequences of bad behavior.
Domestic Unit:Among Gurungs, the domestic unit changes over time. A household will begin as a nuclear family, and, as sons reach adulthood and marry, their brides come into the parental home and remain there while their first one or two children are small. The domestic unit is then an extended family for a period of five to ten years. As the son's children grow, he will build a separate residence, usually next to that of his parents.
Inheritance: Resources are distributed equally among sons in Gurung society. If there is no son, a daughter can inherit, and the son-in-law will come to reside in the household of his parents-in-law. The patrimony may be divided prior to the death of the father. In that case, the father can reserve a small portion. Although it runs contrary to Gurung custom, Nepalese law specifies that unmarried adult daughters should inherit a share of family property.
Socialization: Children are taught to be obedient and respectful of elders. They learn by imitation and the active encouragement of the older children, who often care for smaller ones. Corporal punishment is occasionally used, and unruly children may be isolated briefly. More often children are coaxed toward good behavior and instructed through stories about possible social and supernatural consequences of bad behavior.
kinship
"Kinship"
Kin Groups and Descent:
Lineages in Gurung society involve localized agnatic groups linked by a known ancestor. Each lineage is part of a clan. Clan affiliation cuts across locality and acts as a more generalized organizing principle in Gurung society. Descent in terms of rights to lineage resources and clan affiliation is patrilineal, but descent through the mother's line influences marriage possibilities and prohibitions.
Kinship Terminology:
The Gurungs have a wide array of kin terms, which are highly differentiated and precise. Birth order and relative age are important matrices in the structure of Gurung kinship. Kin terms are used for nearly everyone with whom Gurungs interact; unrelated persons are assigned a fictive term.
Kin Groups and Descent:
Lineages in Gurung society involve localized agnatic groups linked by a known ancestor. Each lineage is part of a clan. Clan affiliation cuts across locality and acts as a more generalized organizing principle in Gurung society. Descent in terms of rights to lineage resources and clan affiliation is patrilineal, but descent through the mother's line influences marriage possibilities and prohibitions.
Kinship Terminology:
The Gurungs have a wide array of kin terms, which are highly differentiated and precise. Birth order and relative age are important matrices in the structure of Gurung kinship. Kin terms are used for nearly everyone with whom Gurungs interact; unrelated persons are assigned a fictive term.
Cultural relations
"Cultural relations"
Gurung legends describe a "Ghale Raja," a king who ruled the Gurungs in ancient times. He was overthrown by the Nepali raja of a neighboring principality about the fifteenth century AD. By the sixteenth century, Khasa kings of the Shah family had conquered most of the principalities that make up Present-day Nepal. Gurungs acted as mercenaries in Khasa armies, including those of Prithvi Narayan Shah, the ancestor of the present king of Nepal, who completed unification of the kingdom of Nepal when he conquered the Kathmandu Valley in 1769. Because of their service, Gurungs enjoyed relatively high status in the new kingdom. They continued to act as mercenaries, and in the nineteenth century the Nepalese government signed a treaty allowing the British army to recruit them and other hill peoples into the Gurkha regiments, in which they continue to serve. Beyond ancient legend and documented relations with the nation-state (such as military service), little is known about the history of Gurungs.
The Gurungs are neither geographically isolated from other groups nor unaware of the social conventions and cultural values of the peoples around them. They are involved in trading relations with members of neighboring ethnic groups, including Thakalis and Tibetans, and high-caste Hindu merchants who travel through the villages selling household goods. Gurungs also have ongoing patron-client relationships with members of blacksmith and tailor service castes who live in hamlets attached to Gurung villages. Although interethnic marriage is strongly disapproved of, friendly social intercourse with members of other ethnic groups is usual, and bonds of ritual friendship ( nyel ) are forged between Gurungs and members of equal-status ethnic groups.
Gurung legends describe a "Ghale Raja," a king who ruled the Gurungs in ancient times. He was overthrown by the Nepali raja of a neighboring principality about the fifteenth century AD. By the sixteenth century, Khasa kings of the Shah family had conquered most of the principalities that make up Present-day Nepal. Gurungs acted as mercenaries in Khasa armies, including those of Prithvi Narayan Shah, the ancestor of the present king of Nepal, who completed unification of the kingdom of Nepal when he conquered the Kathmandu Valley in 1769. Because of their service, Gurungs enjoyed relatively high status in the new kingdom. They continued to act as mercenaries, and in the nineteenth century the Nepalese government signed a treaty allowing the British army to recruit them and other hill peoples into the Gurkha regiments, in which they continue to serve. Beyond ancient legend and documented relations with the nation-state (such as military service), little is known about the history of Gurungs.
The Gurungs are neither geographically isolated from other groups nor unaware of the social conventions and cultural values of the peoples around them. They are involved in trading relations with members of neighboring ethnic groups, including Thakalis and Tibetans, and high-caste Hindu merchants who travel through the villages selling household goods. Gurungs also have ongoing patron-client relationships with members of blacksmith and tailor service castes who live in hamlets attached to Gurung villages. Although interethnic marriage is strongly disapproved of, friendly social intercourse with members of other ethnic groups is usual, and bonds of ritual friendship ( nyel ) are forged between Gurungs and members of equal-status ethnic groups.
Religion
" religion "
The Gurung are followers ofBön shamanism or Pyetañ Lhutañ which is one of the oldest religions in the world using its own Priests; Pachyu, Klehpree and Bönpo Lama. Tibetan Buddhism was later introduced to the Gurung Community after Dalai Lama fled Tibet in 1959 and most of his followers settled in the Northern part of Gandaki Region where the Gurungs are predominantly inhabitants. The Tibetan Lamaism then established the influence of the Tibetan Buddhism in the least educated Gurung community, endangering to the heritage culture, traditions and religion values. Today, some of the Gurungs are followers of Tibetan Buddhism (Lamaism). Nowadays, a pocket of Christianity and Muslim follower gurungs can be found. The influence of Bön shamanism is strong among many Gurung.
In Religion categories: Pyetañ Lhutañ is the Bön Religion where the nature and anchesters are worshipped and animism is practised. The animism is the belief in a supernatural power that organises and animates the materials of uniserve.
Hindu influence from the Nepali led to many Gurung practicing Tibetan Buddhism with influences from Hinduism as well as Bön. Pockets of Gurung who live among the Hindus have converted to Buddhism.
According to the 2001 Nepal Census, 69.03% of the ethnic Gurung wereBuddhists , 28.75% were Hindus and 0.66% were Christians.
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| lord buddha |
The Gurung are followers of
In Religion categories: Pyetañ Lhutañ is the Bön Religion where the nature and anchesters are worshipped and animism is practised. The animism is the belief in a supernatural power that organises and animates the materials of uniserve.
According to the 2001 Nepal Census, 69.03% of the ethnic Gurung were
Gurung language
"Gurung language (Tamu language)"
History of Gurungs In 1958, Bernard Pignede, a French student of anthropology came to Nepal to study about Gurungs. He spent seven months in a Gurung village Mohoriya (Kaski, Gandaki) and traveled through many neighboring Gurung villages to do his research. He learned to speak tamu-kuwei (gurung dialect) and documented pretty much everything about the gurungs - their social structure, culture, religion, history, occupations, legends and myths. He translated pae, a ritual and religious pratice that one gurung generation has passed down to another for thousands of years. Pae conveys the oral history of gurungs and is considered very sacred. Unfortunately, Pignede died tragically in 1961 at age of 29. After his death, Professor Louis Dumont published Pegnedes work in 1966. The book was immediately recognized as a major contribution to the anthropology of the Himalayas. Later, two noted anthropoligists - Sarah Harrison and Alan Macfarlane translated it in English and published the first English version in 1993. Harrison and Macfarlane did further study of gurungs and added more to Pignede's work. The English version of book is called "The Gurungs", which is probably the most acclaimed research on Gurungs so far.
History of Gurungs In 1958, Bernard Pignede, a French student of anthropology came to Nepal to study about Gurungs. He spent seven months in a Gurung village Mohoriya (Kaski, Gandaki) and traveled through many neighboring Gurung villages to do his research. He learned to speak tamu-kuwei (gurung dialect) and documented pretty much everything about the gurungs - their social structure, culture, religion, history, occupations, legends and myths. He translated pae, a ritual and religious pratice that one gurung generation has passed down to another for thousands of years. Pae conveys the oral history of gurungs and is considered very sacred. Unfortunately, Pignede died tragically in 1961 at age of 29. After his death, Professor Louis Dumont published Pegnedes work in 1966. The book was immediately recognized as a major contribution to the anthropology of the Himalayas. Later, two noted anthropoligists - Sarah Harrison and Alan Macfarlane translated it in English and published the first English version in 1993. Harrison and Macfarlane did further study of gurungs and added more to Pignede's work. The English version of book is called "The Gurungs", which is probably the most acclaimed research on Gurungs so far.
Gurung lifestyle
"Gurung lifestyle"
Lifestyle:
Lifestyle:
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| gurung lifestyle |
Elderly Gurung woman hugging a goat.Their traditional occupation was based on sheep herding, trans-Himalayan trade and farming. In the 19th and early 20th century, many Gurung were recruited to serve in the British and Indian Gurkha regiments. Today, the Singapore Police, Brunei reserve units and the French Foreign Legion incorporate ethnically Gurung members. While serving in the British Army they have earned more than 6 Victoria Cross awards. Gurungs are not only restricted to military occupations, many live in urban areas and are employed in all types of labor, business and professional services.
Gurungs trace their descent patrilineally, organized into two groups, or moieties of patrilineal clans.
A noted Gurung tradition is the institution of Rodhi where teenagers form fictive kinship bonds and become Rodhi members to socialize, perform communal tasks, and find marriage partners. But the institution is rarely in existence because of its notoriety in the community. 'Rodhi' literally means weaving and making of baskets.
Generally speaking, the Gurungs are divided into two castes (Jaat in the local tongue); Chaar and the Sohra. Within the Chaar jaat there exists further sub-divisions: namely, Ghale, Ghotane, Lama and Lamichhaney. Their cultural norms and values are greatly influenced by the Tibetans. Tibetan priests does all the rituals. They are the main part of their culture. They are mainly Buddhist by religion. The Sohra jaat means (16 castes) ; but there exists more than 50 (approx) further sub divisions, named by their occupations. Their tradition mainly rely on Pye- taa, Lhu taa. They have their own priests, ‘ghyabreys’ and ‘pachyus’ and they do all the traditional rituals. They follow ‘Bon’ religion which was originated from Mongolia with the origin of gurungs. But we can see the influence of Hindu religion in the culture and tradition of the gurungs.
Gurungs trace their descent patrilineally, organized into two groups, or moieties of patrilineal clans.
A noted Gurung tradition is the institution of Rodhi where teenagers form fictive kinship bonds and become Rodhi members to socialize, perform communal tasks, and find marriage partners. But the institution is rarely in existence because of its notoriety in the community. 'Rodhi' literally means weaving and making of baskets.
Generally speaking, the Gurungs are divided into two castes (Jaat in the local tongue); Chaar and the Sohra. Within the Chaar jaat there exists further sub-divisions: namely, Ghale, Ghotane, Lama and Lamichhaney. Their cultural norms and values are greatly influenced by the Tibetans. Tibetan priests does all the rituals. They are the main part of their culture. They are mainly Buddhist by religion. The Sohra jaat means (16 castes) ; but there exists more than 50 (approx) further sub divisions, named by their occupations. Their tradition mainly rely on Pye- taa, Lhu taa. They have their own priests, ‘ghyabreys’ and ‘pachyus’ and they do all the traditional rituals. They follow ‘Bon’ religion which was originated from Mongolia with the origin of gurungs. But we can see the influence of Hindu religion in the culture and tradition of the gurungs.
Gurungs trace their descent patrilineally, organized into two groups, or moieties of patrilineal clans.
A noted Gurung tradition is the institution of Rodhi where teenagers form fictive kinship bonds and become Rodhi members to socialize, perform communal tasks, and find marriage partners.But the institution is rarely in existance because of its notoriusity in the community.'Rodhi' literally means weaving and making of baskets.
Jobs of Gurung people
"Job in Gurung culture"
Jobs:
Gurkha Soldier Monument at London.Though only about half a million in number, the Gurung people have made distinct and immense contributions to history and culture and have demonstrated an unwavering commitment to world peace and progress. At present, the majority of Gurungs live in Nepal, where they form one of the many ethnic groups in the country. In Nepal, Gurungs have and continue to play significant roles in all spheres of the country’s development. Outside Nepal, many Gurungs, some in their renowned role as Gurkha soldiers, have lived and been exposed to diverse world cultures in areas as different as Bhutan, Europe, Hong-Kong, India, Japan, Korea, and the United States of America. In Nepal, Gurungs can be divided into two categories, highlanders and lowlanders (though Gurungs are predominantly highlanders). Highlanders living on the slopes of Himalayas still rely heavily on a pastoral and agricultural way of life. They grow rice, wheat, maize, millet and potatoes, normally on terraced mountain slopes. They also derive subsistence from sheep breeding for meat and wool, using fierce mastiffs as sheepdogs.
A Gurung farmer in his orange orchard, near Kalimpong, West Bengal, IndiaMany Gurung families, however, have another important source of income — the pensions and salaries of family members who are in the army. Among them are the legendary fighters of the British Gurkha Regiment, who were honored with Victoria Crosses for their bravery. Indeed Gurungs are renowned for their role as Gurkha soldiers, making unparalleled contributions in far flung places such as Europe during World Wars I and II, Burma, Malaysia, the Falklands, Africa, and India. Most recently, Gurungs have participated and continue to participate in most United Nations peacekeeping missions throughout the world.
Despite many pushes and pulls of modern day life, Gurungs are increasingly eager to learn, preserve, and celebrate their distinct cultural heritage and practices. This includes not only the various belief systems and cultural practices surrounding festivals, birth, marriage, and death rituals, but also the Gurungs’ own language Tamu Kwei, generally considered a Tibeto-Burman dialect. This focus on Gurung culture continues to provide invaluable insights and inspiration toward the future.
In an ever more interdependent world, Gurungs face the challenge of balancing the preservation of their unique cultural heritage with adaptation to the demands of modern life. The majority of Gurungs still struggle for basic opportunities to improve their livelihoods. As in the past, Gurungs need to invest in opportunities that build on their well-known attributes as people who are hard working, trustworthy, adaptable, and quick-learners in meeting the challenges of modern life in Nepal and beyond its boundaries. Gurungs seek support and guidance from individuals, institutions, and governments.
Jobs:
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| soldier |
Gurkha Soldier Monument at London.Though only about half a million in number, the Gurung people have made distinct and immense contributions to history and culture and have demonstrated an unwavering commitment to world peace and progress. At present, the majority of Gurungs live in Nepal, where they form one of the many ethnic groups in the country. In Nepal, Gurungs have and continue to play significant roles in all spheres of the country’s development. Outside Nepal, many Gurungs, some in their renowned role as Gurkha soldiers, have lived and been exposed to diverse world cultures in areas as different as Bhutan, Europe, Hong-Kong, India, Japan, Korea, and the United States of America. In Nepal, Gurungs can be divided into two categories, highlanders and lowlanders (though Gurungs are predominantly highlanders). Highlanders living on the slopes of Himalayas still rely heavily on a pastoral and agricultural way of life. They grow rice, wheat, maize, millet and potatoes, normally on terraced mountain slopes. They also derive subsistence from sheep breeding for meat and wool, using fierce mastiffs as sheepdogs.
A Gurung farmer in his orange orchard, near Kalimpong, West Bengal, IndiaMany Gurung families, however, have another important source of income — the pensions and salaries of family members who are in the army. Among them are the legendary fighters of the British Gurkha Regiment, who were honored with Victoria Crosses for their bravery. Indeed Gurungs are renowned for their role as Gurkha soldiers, making unparalleled contributions in far flung places such as Europe during World Wars I and II, Burma, Malaysia, the Falklands, Africa, and India. Most recently, Gurungs have participated and continue to participate in most United Nations peacekeeping missions throughout the world.
Despite many pushes and pulls of modern day life, Gurungs are increasingly eager to learn, preserve, and celebrate their distinct cultural heritage and practices. This includes not only the various belief systems and cultural practices surrounding festivals, birth, marriage, and death rituals, but also the Gurungs’ own language Tamu Kwei, generally considered a Tibeto-Burman dialect. This focus on Gurung culture continues to provide invaluable insights and inspiration toward the future.
In an ever more interdependent world, Gurungs face the challenge of balancing the preservation of their unique cultural heritage with adaptation to the demands of modern life. The majority of Gurungs still struggle for basic opportunities to improve their livelihoods. As in the past, Gurungs need to invest in opportunities that build on their well-known attributes as people who are hard working, trustworthy, adaptable, and quick-learners in meeting the challenges of modern life in Nepal and beyond its boundaries. Gurungs seek support and guidance from individuals, institutions, and governments.
Gurung cultural music
"Gurung cultural music and rodhighars"
Gurung Music:
The Gurung have a rich tradition of music and culture. The Gurung have established the system of Rodhi which is a little similar to modern discothèques, where young people meet and share their views in music and dancing. They have their own music and dancing history. Some musical dances such as Ghatu and Chudka are still in existence. In many Gurung villages they are still performing these types of musical dances, which are performed either in a solo or in a groups. Gurung films have been produced which promote these musical dances.
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| womens in rodhi |
The Gurung have a rich tradition of music and culture. The Gurung have established the system of Rodhi which is a little similar to modern discothèques, where young people meet and share their views in music and dancing. They have their own music and dancing history. Some musical dances such as Ghatu and Chudka are still in existence. In many Gurung villages they are still performing these types of musical dances, which are performed either in a solo or in a groups. Gurung films have been produced which promote these musical dances.
Tribute to Dr.Harka bahadur Gurung
"Tribute to Dr.Harka bahadur Gurung"
Dr. Harka Gurung was a true family man who loved and deeply respected every member of his family. As he was more interested in natural landscape than giving Hindu or Buddhist names to his children, he named his two daughters Himalchuli and Manasulu, and one son Sagarmatha. He dedicated his book, Vignettes of Nepal (1980) to his two daughters (Himalchuli and Manasulu) and two sons (Bikas and Sagarmatha). The book, Nepal: Dimensions of Development (1984) was dedicated to his father (Subedar Parsai Gurung) and the other book, Nature and Culture (1989), to his mother (Mayishebo Gurung). The publisher of most of his books was his wife Ms. Saroj Gurung. He acknowledged his wife in most of his writings and admitted that she accompanied him through even the most difficult parts of his life with courage and fortitude.
Dr. Gurung is no doubt one of the most accomplished Nepali scholars to date in the history of Nepal. His breadth of interest was unusual and his productivity at this stage of his career stage was virtually unparalleled among any Nepali scholars to date. He has conducted research and published on a range of issues encompassing some of the earliest and best travelogues, best ethnographic descriptions of various Nepali ethnic groups, assessments of the politics of ethnic identity in Nepal, and population-related themes ranging from fertility to migration. Beyond geography, his writings vary enormously in contents. Some writings are closer to history, some to sociology and anthropology, political science, economics or development studies. Some of his writings are purely descriptive while others are highly analytical. This diversity is both a strength and a weakness. It is strength because so many sources of knowledge come together in the field that it continually sparkles with new ideas and thoughts. There is also a weakness in such writings, as diverse efforts make a subject weaker in its own areas.
While Dr. Gurung was in fact not particularly interested in developing theories of social sciences in general, at the same time he was quite good at developing models. His models of "regional development" based on five development regions, and a proposal to divide Nepal into 25 districts are very well taken by Nepali scholars and planners even today. He was a true nationalist. As a team leader of the project on migration, he proposed two things if Nepal hoped to develop in the future: the border between Nepal and India must be regulated and a system of work permits should be introduced to foreign workers in Nepal. The latter stages of his writing can be counted on understanding, and often representing, the indigenous or "native" point of view. In other words, he played the role of a "cultural broker," in mediating between the government and the Adibasi/Janajati groups of Nepal for their upliftment and development. He noted that the underdevelopment of many Adivasi/Janajati groups was closely related to the social and political constraints of the wider Nepali Hindu social structure. Unlike many Nepali scholars, he always read and cited books which focussed on Nepal; in fact, his study room at home can aptly be described as a 'Nepal Collection'.
Dr. Gurung had a lifelong passion for travel, an inner desire for adventure and facts which ultimately led to his tragic death in the soil of a remote region of Nepal Himalayas. He will be remembered in the history of Nepal as a planner, teacher and renowned academic.
Dr. Harka Gurung was a true family man who loved and deeply respected every member of his family. As he was more interested in natural landscape than giving Hindu or Buddhist names to his children, he named his two daughters Himalchuli and Manasulu, and one son Sagarmatha. He dedicated his book, Vignettes of Nepal (1980) to his two daughters (Himalchuli and Manasulu) and two sons (Bikas and Sagarmatha). The book, Nepal: Dimensions of Development (1984) was dedicated to his father (Subedar Parsai Gurung) and the other book, Nature and Culture (1989), to his mother (Mayishebo Gurung). The publisher of most of his books was his wife Ms. Saroj Gurung. He acknowledged his wife in most of his writings and admitted that she accompanied him through even the most difficult parts of his life with courage and fortitude.
Dr. Gurung is no doubt one of the most accomplished Nepali scholars to date in the history of Nepal. His breadth of interest was unusual and his productivity at this stage of his career stage was virtually unparalleled among any Nepali scholars to date. He has conducted research and published on a range of issues encompassing some of the earliest and best travelogues, best ethnographic descriptions of various Nepali ethnic groups, assessments of the politics of ethnic identity in Nepal, and population-related themes ranging from fertility to migration. Beyond geography, his writings vary enormously in contents. Some writings are closer to history, some to sociology and anthropology, political science, economics or development studies. Some of his writings are purely descriptive while others are highly analytical. This diversity is both a strength and a weakness. It is strength because so many sources of knowledge come together in the field that it continually sparkles with new ideas and thoughts. There is also a weakness in such writings, as diverse efforts make a subject weaker in its own areas.
While Dr. Gurung was in fact not particularly interested in developing theories of social sciences in general, at the same time he was quite good at developing models. His models of "regional development" based on five development regions, and a proposal to divide Nepal into 25 districts are very well taken by Nepali scholars and planners even today. He was a true nationalist. As a team leader of the project on migration, he proposed two things if Nepal hoped to develop in the future: the border between Nepal and India must be regulated and a system of work permits should be introduced to foreign workers in Nepal. The latter stages of his writing can be counted on understanding, and often representing, the indigenous or "native" point of view. In other words, he played the role of a "cultural broker," in mediating between the government and the Adibasi/Janajati groups of Nepal for their upliftment and development. He noted that the underdevelopment of many Adivasi/Janajati groups was closely related to the social and political constraints of the wider Nepali Hindu social structure. Unlike many Nepali scholars, he always read and cited books which focussed on Nepal; in fact, his study room at home can aptly be described as a 'Nepal Collection'.
Dr. Gurung had a lifelong passion for travel, an inner desire for adventure and facts which ultimately led to his tragic death in the soil of a remote region of Nepal Himalayas. He will be remembered in the history of Nepal as a planner, teacher and renowned academic.
Sorathi dance ,a dance of gurung culture
"Sorathi"
Sorathi is a folk dance of the Gurung and Magar tribes. It is performed to celebrate the birth of male babies. All the old and youths and children dance together on this occasion. It is believed that one of the Gurung Kings had 1600 queens, but had no children. In despair, the king started snatching valuable ornaments from his queens and sold them for his earthly pleasure. This dance depicts how the poor queens express their grievances.
Wednesday, August 18, 2010
Scholarly contribution of Dr.Harka bahadur Gurung
"Scholarly contribution of Dr.Harka bahadur Gurung"
Dr. Harka Gurung has published several books and articles and given hundreds of interviews to many renowned newspapers in Nepal. Before his death in September 2006, there are a total of 697 publications to his credit: 15 books, 7 small monographs and 675 articles and reports. This long list of his publications will appear in some other volume in the future, Tables 1, 2 and 3 below provide a summary of his writings according to thematic contributions and chronological order, including the most important books with major themes.
His important books organised by theme are given in Table 3 below.
Nepal, 1983, co-author). On the other hand, he was a good observer and traveller. As a geographer and mountain chronicler, he travelled different parts of Nepal, and he recollected many of his memories in his book, Vignettes of Nepal (1980).
Considering his vast number of books, monographs and articles, if I were to compile a list of the most important and significant books and articles by Dr. Gurung, the job would be immensely difficult. This is because when I start reading them, I find that each of his publications was based on data (both primary and secondary) with sound logic, reasoning and methodology. Below, I briefly highlight some of his important writings (books and reports) and how he presented his ideas as a great scholar in various social sciences.
The book Vignettes of Nepal (Sajha Prakashan 1980) is divided into 20 chapters with a bibliography, a glossary and an index. The book has 19 maps, 44 colour plates and 58 black and white photographs. The book is essentially a travelogue and introduces the readers to his journey across different parts of Nepal: the snowy mountains, the hilly regions, criss-crossed by a maze of streams and rivers and adorned with beautiful lakes and delightful valleys. In addition to the description of varying landscape, there are rich anecdotes on local history and lore, the economy and cultures of diverse ethnic groups. There are vivid descriptions of geology, flora, fauna, festivals and subtle observations on the changes that are taking place in rural Nepal. However, he is also clever to note his biases towards his discipline and use of such words throughout the text. He writes, "the profusion of words like ridge, valley, ascend, descend, climb, steep and traverse are a reflection both of my geographical bias and the rugged terrain of the country" (p. vii). This book was written during a difficult time in his life when he was implicated in a court case of a political nature (Carpet scandal).
The Monograph/Report Internal and International Migration in Nepal (Main Report, National Commission on Population, Singh Durbar, Kathmandu, 1983) was jointly prepared by the 9- member of the study team (four geographers, two sociologists and three economists) and Dr. Gurung coordinated the overall study and the writing. The study focused on the Kathmandu valley (Kathmandu, Lalitpur and Bhaktapur districts) and the Tarai districts (Jhapa, Morang, Siraha, Parsa, Dahnusa, Mahottari, Nawalparasi, Rupendehi, Banke and Kanchanpur). The field study was completed in about three months. The main topics included not only basic data on national and international migration but also a study of the international border, internal migration, labour and citizenship. The interesting findings of this study are:
1. According to interviews with the heads of households conducted in the Tarai districts, 6.9 per cent were immigrants. In this calculation it was observed that over the last 25 years (between 1958-1983), the annual growth rate of immigrants in Nepal was 4.2 per cent.
2. Interviews conducted with the heads of households in the Kathamndu valley showed that 2.9 per cent were immigrants.
Of the many recommendations made in the report, two recommendations were most important.
1. Border regulation between Nepal and India; and
2. Foreign workers working in Nepal should obtain a "work permit" to work in Nepal
Because of this report, many "Madhesi people" of the Tarai were not happy with Dr. Harka Gurung and some even proposed to hang him when the report was publicly released. Today, everybody realizes that he was a "true nationalist" as he was very careful to note the illegal entry of Indian nationals into Nepal under the guise of local Madhesi people of the Tarai.
The book, Nepal: Dimensions of Development (Kathmandu, 1984 & 1989, pp 322 pages with 20 figures and 58 tables), has 22 chapters, and is a collection of writings spread over the last 15 years published in various journals such as Vasudha, Industrial Digest, Population and Development, and so on. In totality, the volume deals with various aspects of development in Nepal. The articles include journalistic forays, conference papers and inaugural addresses and many seminar presentations and articles focused on population, spatial planning and the ecological problems of Nepal.
In the book, Nature and Culture, Random Reflections (Kathmandu, 1989) the author wants to bridge the gap between the social sciences and natural sciences from the perspective of a "holistic view of things". The book is a collection of 25 articles published in various journals over the last three decades as a student (1960-64), teacher (1964-65), planner (1968-78), politician (1975-78) and the freelance consultant (1980-1989). The book is divided into four major themes: Himalaya (6 articles), Landscape (7 articles), Society (8 articles) and Political Culture (4 articles). The book is indeed a great contribution to those who are interested in understanding the different social and natural dimensions of Nepal and their interrelationships.
The book, Nepal: Social Demography and Expressions, published by NEW ERA (1998) is a pioneering book about the sociology and demography of Nepal. As the title of the book suggests, there are two major parts: Social Demography and Expressions. Part I--Demography has five chapters that deal with population, migration, ethnicity, language and religion based on the 1991 census data. In Part II--Expressions, another five chapters deal with topics such as education and elitism, ethnicity/caste and politics, regionalism and elections, and development and ideology based on the data of the 1991 census and various other sources such as the Election Commission, the World Bank. Chapter Ten of this section "State and Society" is a reprint of his previous article published in Nationalism and Ethnicity in the Hindu Kingdom: The Politics of Culture in Contemporary Nepal (1997) edited by David Gellner et. al. This book is very useful for students of sociology, anthropology, population and political science as it furnishes good comparative data on the situation of various ethnic/caste groups in Nepal, a demographic account of growth and the redistribution of population and the political representation of various ethnic/caste groups in relation to other groups and their level of development in Nepal. Numerous tables and appendices provide the reader with a good source of material. Throughout the book, Dr. Gurung attempts to show that Adivasi/Janajti groups in Nepal are socially, economically and politically backward compared to groups like the Brahmin, Chhetri and Newar. He thus feels that the demands of Adivasi/Janajajti for equal participation and representation in various socioeconomic and political sectors of Nepal is well justified. In his preface, he aptly remarks that "Ethnic politics in today's Nepal is both an expression of primordial aspiration and a process of people's transition from subjects to citizens. What is now being contested in the socio-political arena will determine the formation of the nation." In other words, inclusion of various groups (such as the Adibasi/Janaajti and Dalit) is a must for the overall development processes of Nepal. In the latter stage of his life, he expressed these ideas in several forums and published a couple of articles on these themes.
The book, Janajati Serophero (In the world of Nationalities) (Kathmandu: Nepal Federation of Indigenous Nationalities, 2004), is restricted to issues dealing with the indigenous nationalities of Nepal. There are 21 provocative articles in the Nepali language on different themes. Most of the articles published in the book relate to Nepal's post-1990 democratic revolutions. Though the book claims to deal with the world of Adivasi/Janajati, there are at least four articles which exclusively focus on Gurungs only such as "Gurung Jati Bare" (About the Gurungs), "Tamujati: Auta Manthan" (Tamu Jati: Some Discussions), "Tamu Sankritiko Jagerna" (Protection of Tamu Culture) and "Gurung Bare Auta Thakali Katha" (A Thakali story about the Gurung). Other articles include "Gorkhali-ko Chinari" (Introduction to the Gorkhali people), "Kuro Sanskrit Karkapko" (Sanskrit talk used under pressure), and so on. One of the major arguments raised by Gurung in this book is about the origin of the Gurung themselves. He feels that that there is a lack of scientific evidence about how the Gurungs were divided into the "Char Jate" (four groups) and "Sora Jate" (sixteen groups) Gurungs. He neither believes in the Brahmanical model which relates to the origin of Gurung as having Hindu blood nor the Western version which suggests that the community have Tibetan blood. He feels that more in-depth research is required to understand the origin of the Gurungs in the context of Nepal. This clearly suggests that the history and origin of many Adibasi/Janaajti groups of Nepal is blurred.
The booklet, Trident and Thunderbolt: Cultural Dynamics in Nepalese Politics is based on a lecturer delivered by Dr. Gurung, which was an inangural lecture is the Mahesh Chandra Regmi lecture organised by Social Science Baha, 24 April 2003 on "The Agenda of Transformation: Inclusion in Nepali Democracy". He argues that the monopolistic policies of the Hindu state over the last 235 years have marginalized various groups in different ways. The three major groups of contenders who are marginalized by the state are : (i) Janajajti (ethnic peoples) on the basis of culture, (ii) Dalit (untouchables) on the basis of caste and (iii) Madhesis (Tarai) on the basis of geography. He offers ethnic/cultural events from 1770 to 1964 from various Janajati groups who contested for space within the state. Finally, Gurung suggests some areas for intervention for the upliftment of groups such as the Janajati, Madhesi and Dalit.
The last book before his death was From Exclusion to Inclusion: Socio-Political Agenda for Nepal (Kathmandu: Social Inclusion Research Fund, 2006, pp. 50). In this book he considers social inclusion/exclusion as the socio-political agenda of various groups of people in Nepal. He argues that there is educational and political inequality and economic deprivation among various groups and that there thus needs to be an agenda of social inclusion for these communities. He notes that Nepal, with its high-caste patrimony, has always remained averse to progressive measures on equality (p. 47). That is why the social inclusion of groups like the Adibasi/Janajati is mandatory for any kind of development model in Nepal.
A very typical Gurung song........
"A very typical Gurung song composed and sung by Late Dr.Harka bdr Gurung"
Shabda & Sankalan ळेखक,श्ब्द, रचना र संकलन
Pratham Tamu Kavi Harka Bahadur Tamu
तमु कबि-हर्क बहादुर तमु:
Shabda & Sankalan ळेखक,श्ब्द, रचना र संकलन
Pratham Tamu Kavi Harka Bahadur Tamu
तमु कबि-हर्क बहादुर तमु:
KYUDE THULEN "क्युदे थुलेन"
Kyude thule dukha mhana barsha mulari,
Khaile Tiba Khaile hyaba aagu hyulari.
Aaseba aatoba mhini hyaltuba ...... Oh....
Ahya bima krar khasi bhoba.
Chamai kuiemil binti mu hai thedo pukara,
Bile bisyan sharam khamu pino guhara. Kyude .....
Chadhir sai aare jyu bhosi aata .... Oh....
Mhaya biba tai aare apa mayun mai jata.
Chhobai prath tiro lili khabaje alado,
chame kuie mil karma lai chhale aawado. Kyude......
Chhobai pratha laji gharbar lhe tamu ...Oh...
gharbar nhoji gharbar lam hyu laji prahmu.
Tiro lili chhobai pratha khabaje aalado,
Chame Kuiemil mirbai mikli sarapa aanodo. Kyude........
Aatona Aatona yug thola khanje ...Oh...
Sukh biba jindgir mhoran taje.
Bar jhonsi bar aata tiro mhilaji,
chame kuiemil aapat mu hai lado bhalai, Kyude....
Legend of late poet Dr.Harka bahadur Gurung
"Late poet Dr.Harka bahadur Gurung"
Dr. Harka Bahadur Gurung (1939-2006), well known for his wide-ranging scholarship, died in a helicopter crash on September 23, 2006 in Taplejung District, Eastern Nepal. This small note on Dr. Harka Gurung basically focuses on two things: a) Background information on his family, education and services, and b) His scholarship and contributions to social sciences in Nepal.
Family Background and Academic Career:
Dr. Harka Gurung was born in Taranche, a small village in Lamjung in Central Nepal on February 5, 1939 in a soldier-cum priestly Gurung family. His grandfather used to work as Pachu priest. The snow peaks of Manasulu and Himalchuli loom large just 24 kilometres north of the village Taranche, and this village was situated on the left bank of the Marshyandi river. This natural landscape of birthplace not only developed in him a sense of "belongingness" to the location throughout his life but also opened up the path to becoming a good geographer in the future.
He was the fourth son of the family. He was popularly known as "Thula" (big) by his peers in Taranche as he was the first youngest son (Thula kancha) in the family. His father was a subedar (non-commissioned first class officer) in the British army in India. His two elder brothers also worked in the British army in India. So it was natural that he spent his childhood with his parents in Dehardun, India, with the children of army families.
He started learning the basic Buddhist Lamaistic education from his grandfather at home. He learnt Tamukui or Gurung kura at home and learn Nepali from his friends as the village was dominated by the Chhetri community. His formal schooling began in the Children School, Deharadun, at the age of nine and he finished high school from King George Military School, Jalandhar, in 1955. This military school provided him with the foundation of a good education including discipline, games and sports. It is interesting to note here that despite his education in the military school and the background of army families, he did not join in the Indian army. There could be two reasons for this: i) His short physical stature did not motivate him to join the army, and ii) His keen interest in pursuing higher studies.
From Deharadun, he came to Kathmandu and finished his Intermediate of Arts from Trichandra College in 1957. He went to Patna College, Patna (Bihar, India) to continue further education. A large number of Nepali students would go to Patna for a degree in higher education in those days as it was closer to Nepal and there was some level of understanding of higher education between the Government of Nepal and Patna University, Bihar, India. Gurung not only earned a first class first B.A (Hons.) degree from Patna College in 1959, but he was also popular in other extra curricular activities. He was the captain of football and hockey team and the General Secretary of the Nepali Students' Union. He also developed good skills in painting. While studying for his M.A. degree in geography from Patna University, he received a scholarship to study geography at the University of Edinburgh where he finished his Post graduate Diploma in 1961 and a Ph.D. degree in geography in 1965. His Ph.D. dissertation entitled, "The Valley of Pokhara: Prolegomena to a Regional Study" (Department of Geography, University of Edinburgh, July 1965) is to this day widely cited as a source to understanding the Pokhara valley.
He began his academic assignments as a Demonstrator at the University of Edinburgh (1963-64) and continued as a Research Fellow, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London (1964-66). He served as a Lecturer in the Department of Geography, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu (1966-68) and Visiting Fellow, Population Institute, East West Center, Honolulu, Hawaii (1984-85). He served as a Member and the Vice Chairman in the National Planning Commission (1968-75); Minister of State for Education, Industry and Commerce (1975-77) and Minister of State for Tourism, and Public Works and Transport (1977-78). His last assignment was the Director of Asia and Pacific Development Centre, an intergovernmental organization based in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia (1993-98). He joined New ERA, a non-governmental organization based in Kathmandu, in 1980, and continued his association with this institution till his death in September 2006.
Dr. Harka Bahadur Gurung (1939-2006), well known for his wide-ranging scholarship, died in a helicopter crash on September 23, 2006 in Taplejung District, Eastern Nepal. This small note on Dr. Harka Gurung basically focuses on two things: a) Background information on his family, education and services, and b) His scholarship and contributions to social sciences in Nepal.
Family Background and Academic Career:
Dr. Harka Gurung was born in Taranche, a small village in Lamjung in Central Nepal on February 5, 1939 in a soldier-cum priestly Gurung family. His grandfather used to work as Pachu priest. The snow peaks of Manasulu and Himalchuli loom large just 24 kilometres north of the village Taranche, and this village was situated on the left bank of the Marshyandi river. This natural landscape of birthplace not only developed in him a sense of "belongingness" to the location throughout his life but also opened up the path to becoming a good geographer in the future.
He was the fourth son of the family. He was popularly known as "Thula" (big) by his peers in Taranche as he was the first youngest son (Thula kancha) in the family. His father was a subedar (non-commissioned first class officer) in the British army in India. His two elder brothers also worked in the British army in India. So it was natural that he spent his childhood with his parents in Dehardun, India, with the children of army families.
He started learning the basic Buddhist Lamaistic education from his grandfather at home. He learnt Tamukui or Gurung kura at home and learn Nepali from his friends as the village was dominated by the Chhetri community. His formal schooling began in the Children School, Deharadun, at the age of nine and he finished high school from King George Military School, Jalandhar, in 1955. This military school provided him with the foundation of a good education including discipline, games and sports. It is interesting to note here that despite his education in the military school and the background of army families, he did not join in the Indian army. There could be two reasons for this: i) His short physical stature did not motivate him to join the army, and ii) His keen interest in pursuing higher studies.
From Deharadun, he came to Kathmandu and finished his Intermediate of Arts from Trichandra College in 1957. He went to Patna College, Patna (Bihar, India) to continue further education. A large number of Nepali students would go to Patna for a degree in higher education in those days as it was closer to Nepal and there was some level of understanding of higher education between the Government of Nepal and Patna University, Bihar, India. Gurung not only earned a first class first B.A (Hons.) degree from Patna College in 1959, but he was also popular in other extra curricular activities. He was the captain of football and hockey team and the General Secretary of the Nepali Students' Union. He also developed good skills in painting. While studying for his M.A. degree in geography from Patna University, he received a scholarship to study geography at the University of Edinburgh where he finished his Post graduate Diploma in 1961 and a Ph.D. degree in geography in 1965. His Ph.D. dissertation entitled, "The Valley of Pokhara: Prolegomena to a Regional Study" (Department of Geography, University of Edinburgh, July 1965) is to this day widely cited as a source to understanding the Pokhara valley.
He began his academic assignments as a Demonstrator at the University of Edinburgh (1963-64) and continued as a Research Fellow, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London (1964-66). He served as a Lecturer in the Department of Geography, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu (1966-68) and Visiting Fellow, Population Institute, East West Center, Honolulu, Hawaii (1984-85). He served as a Member and the Vice Chairman in the National Planning Commission (1968-75); Minister of State for Education, Industry and Commerce (1975-77) and Minister of State for Tourism, and Public Works and Transport (1977-78). His last assignment was the Director of Asia and Pacific Development Centre, an intergovernmental organization based in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia (1993-98). He joined New ERA, a non-governmental organization based in Kathmandu, in 1980, and continued his association with this institution till his death in September 2006.
Tuesday, August 17, 2010
Victoria cross ..a great achievement.........
"Victoria cross"
| Victoria Cross | |
|---|---|
The Victoria Cross (VC) is the highest military decoration which is, or has been, awarded for valour "in the face of the enemy" to members of the armed forces of various Commonwealth countries, and previous British Empire territories. It takes precedence over all other orders, decorations and medals. It may be awarded to a person of any rank in any service and civilians under military command. In the United Kingdom, it is usually presented to the recipient or their next of kin by the British monarch during an investiture held at Buckingham Palace. In those countries aside of Britain where the Monarch of the Commonwealth realms is the head of state, the Governor-General usually fulfils the same function. It is the joint highest award for bravery in the United Kingdom with the George Cross, which is the equivalent honour for valour not in the face of the enemy. However, the VC is higher in the order of wear and would be worn first by an individual who had been awarded both decorations (which has not so far occurred).
The VC was introduced on 29 January 1856 by Queen Victoria to reward acts of valour during the Crimean War. Since then, the medal has been awarded 1,356 times to 1,353 individual recipients. Only 13 medals, nine to members of the British Army, and four to the Australian Army have been awarded since the Second World War. The traditional explanation of the source of the gunmetal from which the medals are struck is that it derives from Russian cannon captured at the siege of Sevastopol. Recent research has thrown doubt on this story, suggesting a variety of origins for the material actually making up the medals themselves. Due to its rarity, the VC is highly prized and the medal can reach over £400,000 at auction. There are a number of public and private collections devoted to it. Lord Ashcroft, whose collection contains over one-tenth of the total VCs awarded, announced in July 2008 a donation to the Imperial War Museum, allowing his collection to be displayed there in a new gallery which will open in 2010.
Since 1990, three Commonwealth countries that retain the Queen as head of state have instituted their own versions of the VC. As a result, the original Victoria Cross is sometimes referred to as the "Commonwealth Victoria Cross" or the "Imperial Victoria Cross", to distinguish it from the newer awards.
Origin:
In 1854, after 40 years of peace, Britain found itself fighting a major war against Russia. The Crimean War was one of the first wars with modern reporting, and the dispatches of William Howard Russell described many acts of bravery and valour by British servicemen that went unrewarded.Before the Crimean War, there was no official standardised system for recognition of gallantry within the British armed forces. Officers were eligible for an award of one of the junior grades of the Order of the Bath and brevet promotions whilst a Mention in Despatches existed as an alternative award for acts of lesser gallantry. This structure was very limited; in practice awards of the Order of the Bath were confined to officers of field rank. Brevet promotions or Mentions in Despatches were largely confined to those who were under the immediate notice of the commanders in the field, generally members of the commander's own staff.
Other European countries had awards that did not discriminate against class or rank; France awarded the Légion d'honneur (Legion of Honour) and The Netherlands gave the Order of William. There was a growing feeling amongst the public and in the Royal Court that a new award was needed to recognise incidents of gallantry that were unconnected with a man's lengthy or meritorious service. Queen Victoria issued a Warrant under the Royal sign-manual on 29 January 1856 (gazetted 5 February 1856) that officially constituted the VC. The order was backdated to 1854 to recognise acts of valour during the Crimean War.
Queen Victoria had instructed the War Office to strike a new medal that would not recognise birth or class. The medal was meant to be a simple decoration that would be highly prized and eagerly sought after by those in the military services. To maintain its simplicity, Queen Victoria, under the guidance of Prince Albert, vetoed the suggestion that the award be called The Military Order of Victoria and instead suggested the name Victoria Cross. The original warrant stated that the Victoria Cross would only be awarded to soldiers who have served in the presence of the enemy and had performed some signal act of valour or devotion.[15] The first ceremony was held on 26 June 1857 where Queen Victoria invested 62 of the 111 Crimean recipients in a ceremony in Hyde Park.Charles Davis Lucas was the first recipient.
It was originally intended that the VCs would be cast from the bronze cascabels of two cannon that were captured from the Russians at the siege of Sevastopol. The historian John Glanfield has since proven through the use of x-rays of older Victoria Crosses that the metal used for VCs is in fact from antique Chinese guns and not of Russian origin. One theory is that the guns were originally Chinese weapons but the Russians captured them and reused them at Sevastopol. It was also thought that some medals made during the First World War were composed of metal captured from different Chinese guns during the Boxer Rebellion but the original metal was used after the war. It is also believed that another source of metal was used between 1942 and 1945 to create five Second World War VCs when the Sevastopol metal went missing.
The barrels of the cannon in question are on display at Firepower - The Royal Artillery Museum at Woolwich. The remaining portion of the only remaining cascabel, weighing 358 oz (10 kg), is stored in a vault maintained by 15 Regiment Royal Logistic Corps at Donnington, Telford. It can only be removed under armed guard. It is estimated that approximately 80 to 85 more VCs could be cast from this source. A single company of jewellers, Hancocks of London, has been responsible for the production of every VC awarded since its inception.
Appearance:
The decoration is a bronze cross pattée, 41 mm high, 36 mm wide, bearing the crown of Saint Edward surmounted by a lion, and the inscription FOR VALOUR. This was originally to have been FOR THE BRAVE, until it was changed on the recommendation of Queen Victoria, as it implied that not all men in battle were brave. The decoration, suspension bar and link weigh about 0.87 troy ounces (27 g).
The cross is suspended by a ring from a seriffed "V" to a bar ornamented with laurel leaves, through which the ribbon passes. The reverse of the suspension bar is engraved with the recipient's name, rank, number and unit.On the reverse of the medal is a circular panel on which the date of the act for which it was awarded is engraved in the centre.
The Original Warrant Clause 1 states that the Victoria Cross "shall consist of a Maltese cross of bronze". Nonetheless, it has always been a cross pattée; the discrepancy with the Warrant has never been corrected.
The ribbon is crimson, 38 mm (1.5 inches) wide. The original (1856) specification for the award stated that the ribbon should be red for army recipients and blue for naval recipients. However the dark blue ribbon was abolished soon after the formation of the Royal Air Force on 1 April 1918. On 22 May 1920 King George V signed a warrant that stated all recipients would now receive a red ribbon and the living recipients of the naval version were required to exchange their ribbons for the new colour. Although the Army warrants state the colour as being red it is defined by most commentators as being crimson or "wine-red".
Award process:
A recommendation for the VC is normally issued by an officer at regimental level, or equivalent, and has to be supported by three witnesses, although this has been waived on occasion. The recommendation is then passed up the military hierarchy until it reaches the Secretary of State for Defence. The recommendation is then laid before the monarch who approves the award with his or her signature. Victoria Cross awards are always promulgated in the London Gazette with the single exception of the award to the American Unknown Soldier in 1921. The Victoria Cross warrant makes no specific provision as to who should actually present the medals to the recipients. Queen Victoria indicated that she would like to present the medals in person and she presented 185 medals out of the 472 gazetted during her reign. Including the first 62 medals presented at a parade in Hyde Park on 26 June 1857 by Queen Victoria, nearly 900 awards have been personally presented to the recipient by the reigning British monarch. Nearly 300 awards have been presented by a member of the royal family or by a civil or military dignitary. About 150 awards were either forwarded to the recipient or next of kin by registered post or no details of the presentations are known.
The original Royal Warrant did not contain a specific clause regarding posthumous awards, although official policy was to not award the VC posthumously. Between the Indian Mutiny and 1897 and the beginning of the Second Boer War the names of six officers and men were published in the London Gazette with a memorandum stating they would have been awarded the Victoria Cross had they survived. A further three notices were published in the London Gazette in September 1900 and April 1901 for gallantry in the Second Boer War. In a partial reversal of policy, six posthumous Victoria Crosses, all for South Africa including the three officers and men mentioned in the notices in 1900 and 1901 were granted on 8 August 1902. Five years later in 1907, the posthumous policy was completely reversed and medals were sent to the next of kin of the six officers and men. The awards were mentioned in notices in the Gazette dating back to the Indian Mutiny. The Victoria Cross warrant was not amended to explicitly allow posthumous awards until 1920, but one quarter of all awards for World War I were posthumous. Although the 1920 Royal Warrant made provision for awards to women serving in the Armed Forces, no women have been awarded a VC.
In the case of a gallant and daring act being performed by a squadron, ship's company or a detached body of men (such as marines) in which all men are deemed equally brave and deserving of the Victoria Cross then a ballot is drawn. The officers select one officer, the NCOs select one individual and the private soldiers or seamen select two individuals. In all 46 awards have been awarded by ballot with 29 of the awards during the Indian Mutiny. Four further awards were granted to Q Battery, Royal Horse Artillery at Korn Spruit on 31 March 1900 during the Second Boer War. The final ballot awards for the Army were the six awards to the Lancashire Fusiliers at W Beach during the landing at Gallipoli on 25 April 1915 although three of the awards were not gazetted until 1917. The final seven ballot awards were the only naval ballot awards with three awards to two Q-Ships in 1917 and four awards for the Zeebrugge Raid in 1918. The provision for awards by ballot is still included in the Victoria Cross warrant but there have been no further such awards since 1918.
Between 1858 and 1881 the Victoria Cross could be awarded for actions taken "under circumstances of extreme danger" not in the face of the enemy. Six such awards were made during this period—five of them for a single incident during an Expedition to the Andaman Islands in 1867. In 1881, the criteria were changed again and the VC was only awarded for acts of valour "in the face of the enemy". Due to this it has been suggested by many historians including Lord Ashcroft that the changing nature of warfare will result in fewer VCs being awarded. The prevalence of remote fighting techniques has meant that opportunities to carry out acts of bravery in the face of the enemy are diminishing. Since 1940, military personnel who have distinguished themselves for gallantry not in the face of the enemy have been awarded the George Cross, which ranks immediately after the VC in the Order of Wear.
Colonial awards:
The Victoria Cross was extended to colonial troops in 1867. The extension was made following a recommendation for gallantry regarding colonial soldier Major Charles Heaphy for action in the New Zealand land wars in 1864. He was operating under British command and the VC was gazetted in 1867. Later that year, the Government of New Zealand assumed full responsibility for operations but no further recommendations for the Victoria Cross were raised for local troops who distinguished themselves in action. Following gallant actions by three New Zealand soldiers in November 1868 and January 1869 during the New Zealand land wars, an Order-in-Council on 10 March 1869 created a “Distinctive Decoration” for members of the local forces without seeking permission from the Secretary of State for the Colonies. Although the Governor was chided for exceeding his authority, the Order in Council was ratified by the Queen. The title “Distinctive Decoration” was later replaced by the title New Zealand Cross.The question of whether recommendations could be made for colonial troops not serving with British troops was not asked in New Zealand, but in 1881, the question was asked in South Africa. Surgeon John McCrea, an officer of the South African forces was recommended for gallantry during hostilities which had not been approved by British Government. He was awarded the Victoria Cross and the principle was established that gallant conduct could be rewarded independently of any political consideration of military operations. More recently, four Australian soldiers were awarded the Victoria Cross in Vietnam although Britain was not involved in the conflict.
Indian troops were not originally eligible for the Victoria Cross since they had been eligible for the Indian Order of Merit since 1837 which was the oldest British gallantry award for general issue. When the Victoria Cross was created, Indian troops were still controlled by the Honourable East India Company and did not come under Crown control until 1860. European officers and men serving with the Honourable East India Company were not eligible for the Indian Order of Merit and the Victoria Cross was extended to cover them in October 1857. It was only at the end of the 19th Century that calls for Indian troops to be awarded the Victoria Cross intensified. Indian troops became eligible for the award in 1911. The first awards to Indian troops appeared in the London Gazette on 7 December 1914 to Darwan Sing Negi and Khudadad Khan. Negi was presented with the Victoria Cross by King George V during a visit to troops in France. The presentation occurred on 5 December 1914 and he is one of a very few soldiers presented with his award before it appeared in the London Gazette.
Separate Commonwealth awards:
In recent years, several Commonwealth countries have introduced their own honours systems, separate from the British Honours System. This began with the Partition of India in 1947, when the new countries of India and Pakistan introduced their own systems of awards. The VC was replaced by the Param Vir Chakra (PVC) and Nishan-e-Haider respectively, although the new countries continued to permit winners of British honours to wear their awards. Several Pakistani soldiers and officers were authorised to wear both the British medals and the ones earned in the later Indo-Pakistani wars. Three Commonwealth realms—Australia, Canada and New Zealand—have each introduced their own decorations for gallantry and bravery, replacing British decorations such as the Military Cross with their own. Most Commonwealth countries, however, still recognise some form of the VC as their highest decoration for valour.
Australia was the first Commonwealth realm to create its own VC, on 15 January 1991. Although it is a separate award, its appearance is identical to its British counterpart. Canada followed suit when in 1993 Queen Elizabeth signed Letters Patent creating the Canadian VC, which is also similar to the British version, except that the legend has been changed from FOR VALOUR to the Latin PRO VALORE This language was chosen so as to favour neither French nor English, the two official languages of Canada. New Zealand was the third country to adapt the VC into its own honours system. While the New Zealand and Australian VCs are technically separate awards, the decoration is identical to the British design, including being cast from the same Crimean War gunmetal as the British VC. The Canadian Victoria Cross also includes metal from the same cannon, along with copper and other metals from all regions of Canada.
As of January 2009, only two of the separate VCs have been awarded. Willie Apiata received the Victoria Cross for New Zealand on 2 July 2007, for his actions in the War in Afghanistan in 2004. Mark Donaldson was awarded the Victoria Cross for Australia on 16 January 2009 for actions during Operation Slipper, the Australian contribution to the War in Afghanistan. A Canadian version has been cast that was originally to be awarded to the Unknown Soldier at the rededication of the Vimy Memorial on 7 April 2007. This date was chosen as it was the 90th anniversary of the battle of Vimy Ridge but pressure from veterans' organisations caused the plan to be dropped.
Authority and privileges:
As the highest award for valour of the United Kingdom, the Victoria Cross is always the first award to be presented at an investiture, even before knighthoods, as was shown at the investiture of Private Johnson Beharry who received his medal before General Sir Mike Jackson received his knighthood. Due to its status, the VC is always the first decoration worn in a row of medals and it is the first set of post-nominal letters used to indicate any decoration or order. Similar acts of extreme valour that do not take place in the face of the enemy are honoured with the George Cross, which has equal precedence but is awarded second because the GC is newer.There is a widespread erroneous myth that it is statutory for "all ranks to salute a bearer of the Victoria Cross". There is no official requirement that appears in the official Warrant of the VC, nor in Queen's Regulations and Orders, but tradition dictates that this occurs and as such the Chiefs of Staff will salute a Private awarded a VC or GC.
The Victoria Cross was at first worn as the recipient fancied. It was popular to pin it on the left side of the chest over the heart, with other decorations grouped around the VC. The Queen's Regulations for the Army of 1881 gave clear instructions on how to wear it; the VC had to follow the badge of the Order of the Indian Empire. In 1900 it was ordained in Dress Regulations for the Army that it should be worn after the cross of a Member of the Royal Victorian Order. It was only in 1902 that King Edward VII gave the cross its present position on a bar brooch. The cross is also worn as a miniature decoration on a brooch or a chain with mess jacket, white tie or black tie. As a bearer of the VC is not a Companion in an Order of Chivalry, the VC has no place in a coat of arms.
Annuity:
The original warrant stated that NCOs and private soldiers or seamen on the Victoria Cross Register were entitled to a £10 per annum annuity. In 1898, Queen Victoria raised the pension to £50 for those that could not earn a livelihood, be it from old age or infirmity. Today holders of the Victoria Cross or George Cross are entitled to an annuity, the amount of which is determined by the awarding government. Since 2002, the annuity paid by the British government is £1,495 per year. As of January 2005, under the Canadian Gallantry Awards Order, members of the Canadian Forces or people who joined the British forces before 31 March 1949 while domiciled in Canada or Newfoundland receive Can$3,000 per year. Under Subsection 103.4 of the Veterans' Entitlements Act 1986, the Australian Government provides a Victoria Cross Allowance. Until November 2005 the amount was Aus$3,230 per year. Since then this amount has been increased annually in line with the Australian Consumer Price Index.Forfeited awards:
- The original Royal Warrant involved an expulsion clause that allowed for a recipient's name to be erased from the official register in certain wholly discreditable circumstances and his pension cancelled. King George V though felt very strongly that the decoration should never be forfeited and in a letter from his Private Secretary, Lord Stamfordham, on 26 July 1920, his views are forcibly expressed:
The power to cancel and restore awards is still included in the Victoria Cross warrant but none has been forfeited since 1908.
Recipients:
In 1921 the Victoria Cross was given to the American Unknown Soldier of the First World War. (The British Unknown Warrior was reciprocally awarded the US Medal of Honor.) One VC is in existence that is not counted in any official records. In 1856, Queen Victoria laid the first Victoria Cross beneath the foundation stone of Netley Military hospital. When the hospital was demolished in 1966 the VC, known as "The Netley VC", was retrieved and is now on display in the Army Medical Services Museum, Mytchett, near Aldershot.
Three people have been awarded the VC and Bar, the bar representing a second award of the VC. They are: Noel Chavasse and Arthur Martin-Leake, both doctors in the Royal Army Medical Corps, for rescuing wounded under fire; and New Zealander Charles Upham, an infantryman, for combat actions. Upham remains the only combatant soldier to have received a VC and Bar. An Irishman, Surgeon General William Manley, remains the sole recipient of both the Victoria Cross and the Iron Cross. The VC was awarded for his actions during the Waikato-Hauhau Maori War, New Zealand on 29 April 1864 whilst the Iron Cross was awarded for tending the wounded during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71. New Zealand Flying Officer Lloyd Trigg, has the distinction of being the only serviceman ever awarded a VC on evidence solely provided by the enemy, for an action in which there were no surviving Allied witnesses. The recommendation was made by the captain of the German U-boat U-468 sunk by Trigg's aircraft. Lieutenant-Commander Gerard Roope was also awarded a VC on recommendation of the enemy, the captain of the Admiral Hipper, but there were also numerous surviving Allied witnesses to corroborate his actions.
Since the end of the Second World War the original VC has been awarded 13 times: four in the Korean War, one in the Indonesia-Malaysia confrontation in 1965, four to Australians in the Vietnam War, two during the Falklands War in 1982, one in the Iraq War in 2004, and one in the War in Afghanistan in 2006. The Victoria Cross for New Zealand has been awarded once, which was earned in Afghanistan in 2004 but awarded in 2007. The Victoria Cross for Australia has been awarded once, which was earned in Afghanistan in 2008 but awarded in 2009.
The two awards given in the 21st century to British personnel have been for actions in the Afghanistan War and the Iraq War. On 18 March 2005, Lance Corporal (then Private) Johnson Beharry of the 1st Battalion, Princess of Wales's Royal Regiment became the first recipient of the VC since Sergeant Ian McKay in 1982. The most recent award of the Victoria Cross to a British service person was the posthumous award on 14 December 2006 to Corporal Bryan Budd of 3 Para. It was awarded for two separate acts of "inspirational leadership and the greatest valour" which led to his death, during actions against the Taliban in Afghanistan in July and August 2006.
Public sales:
Thefts:
Several VCs have been stolen and, being valuable, have been placed on the Interpol watch-list for stolen items. The VC awarded to Milton Gregg, which was donated to the Royal Canadian Regiment Museum in London, Ontario Canada in 1979, was stolen on Canada Day, (1 July 1980), when the museum was overcrowded and has been missing since. A VC awarded in 1917 to Canadian soldier Corporal Filip Konowal was stolen from the same museum in 1973 and was not recovered until 2004.On 2 December 2007, 9 VCs were among 100 medals stolen from locked, reinforced glass cabinets at the QEII Army Memorial Museum in Waiouru, New Zealand with a value of around NZD$20 million. Charles Upham's VC and Bar was among these. A reward of NZ$300,000 was posted for information leading to the recovery of the decorations and conviction of the thieves, although at the time there was much public debate about the need to offer reward money to retrieve the medals. On 16 February 2008 New Zealand Police announced all the medals had been recovered.
Collections:
Public collections:
Museums with holdings of ten or more VCs include:(note 1 = Many VCs are on loan to the museums and are owned by individuals and not owned by the museums themselves.)
(note 2 = It is the largest publicly held collection in the world, including all nine VCs awarded to Australians at Gallipoli.)
Private collections:
British businessman and politician Lord Ashcroft has amassed a private collection of 162 VCs.Ashcroft purchased his first in 1986 and the collection now contains over a tenth of the VCs ever awarded, the largest private or public collection of such decorations ever accumulated. The collection is administered by The Ashcroft Collection Trust. Victoria Cross Heroes by Michael Ashcroft was published in November 2006. It was announced in July 2008 that Ashcroft is donating £5 million for a permanent gallery at the Imperial War Museum where the 50 VCs held by the museum will be put on display alongside his own collection of 162 VCs.Other:
Memorials:
In 2004 a national Victoria Cross and George Cross memorial was installed in Westminster Abbey close to the tomb of The Unknown Warrior. Westminster Abbey is a living monument to British history in that it contains monuments and memorials to central figures in British History including Charles Darwin and James VI & I. As such it was a significant honour for the VC to be commemorated in Westminster Abbey.Canon William Lummis, MC, was a military historian who built up an archive on the service records and final resting places of Victoria Cross holders. This was then summarised into a pamphlet which was taken to be an authoritative source on these matters. However, Lummis was aware of short-comings in his work and encouraged David Harvey to continue it. The result was Harvey's seminal book Monuments to Courage. In 2007 the Royal Mail used material from Lummis' archives to produce a collection of stamps commemorating Victoria Cross recipients.
In art:
The subject of soldiers winning the VC has been popular with artists since the medal's inception. In particular are the fifty paintings by Louis William Desanges that were painted in the late 1850s and early 1860s. Many of these were exhibited at the Egyptian Gallery in Piccadilly, but in 1900, they were brought together by Lord Wantage as the Victoria Cross Gallery and exhibited in the town of Wantage, Berkshire. Later the collection was broken up and many of the paintings were sent to the various regiments depicted. Some were damaged or destroyed. A number of the acts were also portrayed in a Second World War propaganda pamphlet, and the images commissioned by the Ministry of Information are presented in an online gallery available on the website of The National Archives.Soldiers' club naming traditions:
It is a tradition within the Australian Army for soldiers' recreational clubs on military bases to be named after a particular recipient of the Victoria Cross, usually one with whom the unit is historically associated. Permission for such naming rights is usually obtained not only from the relevant command hierarchy within the military itself, but also from the family of the recipient. Once dedicated, the club and its participants typically take great pride in the deeds of the person with whom they are associated, and often family members will be invited to attend certain functions held by the club as a mark of thanks and respect.
On the 29 April 2009 a motion in the House of Commons by the Liberal Democrats that all Gurkhas be offered an equal right of residence resulted in a defeat for the Government by 267 votes to 246, the first, first day motion defeat for a government since 1978. Nick Clegg, the Liberal Democrat leader, stated that "This is an immense victory [...] for the rights of Gurkhas who have been waiting so long for justice, a victory for Parliament, a victory for decency." He added that it was "the kind of thing people want this country to do".
On 21 May 2009, the Home Secretary Jacqui Smith announced that all Gurkha veterans who retired before 1997 with at least four years service would be allowed to settle in the UK. The actress and daughter of Gurkha corps major James Lumley, Joanna Lumley, who had highlighted the treatment of the Gurkhas and campaigned for their rights, commented: "This is the welcome we have always longed to give".
A charity, the Gurkha Welfare Trust, provides aid to alleviate hardship and distress among Gurkha ex-servicemen.
Hong Kong:
A considerable number of ex-Gurkhas and their families live in Hong Kong, where they are particularly well represented in the private security profession (G4S Gurkha Services, Pacific Crown Security Service, Sunkoshi Gurkha Security) and among labourers. Ex-Gurkhas left barracks and moved into surrounding urban area. There are considerable Nepalese communities in Yuen Long and Kwun Chung.British citizenship:
A recent High Court decision on a test case in London has acknowledged the 'debt of honour' to Gurkhas discharged before 1997, and that immigration cases be reviewed, which could set a precedent for citizenship privileges.Malaysian Armed Forces and citizenship:
After the Federation of Malaya became independent from the United Kingdom in August 1957, many Gurkhas became soldiers in the Malayan armed forces, especially in the Royal Ranger Regiment. Others became security guards, mainly in Kuala Lumpur.The United States Navy employs Gurkha guards as sentries at its base in Naval Support Activity Bahrain and on the US Navy side of the pier at Mina Salaman. The Gurkhas work alongside Navy members in day-to-day operations.
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